How have Muslims, past and present, thought about the experience of living under non-Muslim rule? Does being a minority religion change the way Islam is practiced? What sort of religious freedoms have Muslims defined as being important? Can there be an authentic Islam where the Shariʿa cannot be enforced? This anthology of fatwas showcases diverse reflections by major Muslim thinkers on the political, social, and theological ramifications of living in places with non-Muslim governments. These documents, which span the fourteenth to the twenty-first centuries, reflect on the experiences of Muslim communities in such places as medieval Christian Spain, India, French Africa, Europe, the United States, and Israel/Palestine. Providing newly translated fatwas together with informative introductions and explanatory notes, this book is a valuable resource for anyone interested in Islamic law, interreligious encounters, colonialism, comparative world history, and the Muslim experience of minorityhood.